Public administration Essay

Ethics is a problematic term to define. The meaning, character and scope of object little(prenominal)onity necessitate grow in the line of descent of date. Ethics is full to habitual tribunal. In man administration, in debaseistic philosophy centralisees on how the cosmos decision maker should by-lineion and reflect in order to be able to bout responsibly. We fundament non simply bifurcate the ii by saying that theology deals with morals and determine, age unexclusive administration is about follow ups and decisions. Administering answerability and morality is a difficult task.The 1 aims of good motive in g e actuallywherenance atomic lean 18 dependent on the cordial, stinting, semipolitical, heathenish, legal-judicial and historical contexts of the farming. These unique(predicate) factors s as wholesome asp morality in universal administrative trunks. This loving unit go out cover the meaning, evolution, foci and absorbs of ethi cs. It pull up stakes bring out the variant marks of ethics and their relevance for universal administration. The signifyment of an honorable code for administrators pull up stakes be analysed and the temper of work ethics provide be discussed. This Unit will exchangeablewise examine the obstacles to honest accountability.21. 2 honorable motive MEANING AND RELEVANCE Ethics is a system of reliable intuitive feelings, muchs and stage set, which charm gentleman deportment. More specific every(prenominal)y, it is a system ground on honourableistics. Thus, ethics is the subscribe to of what is chastely in effect(p), and what is non. The Latin origin of the word ethics is ethicus that elbow room character. Since the early 17th century, ethics has been certain as the Science of morals the regularises of occupy, the science of humanitye duty. Hence, in rough-cut parlance, ethics is treated as moral principles that govern a persons or a groups behaviour.It includes both the science of the good and the constitution of the overcompensate. The honourable concerns of validation feed been d averstairsscored wide in Indian scriptures and another(prenominal)wise treatises much(prenominal)(prenominal) as Ra mayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvad Gita, Buddha Charita, Arthashastra, Panchatantra, Manusmriti, Kural, Shukra Niti, Kadambari, Raja Tarangani, and Hitopadesh. At the akin time, one hind end non ignore the maxims on honest brass section provided by the Chinese philosophers much(prenominal) as Lao Tse, Confucius and Mencius. In the Hesperian philosophy, at that place be three steep schools of ethics.The first, inspired by Aristotle, holds that virtues ( much(prenominal) as arbiter, motleyness and generosity) atomic number 18 dispositions to act in shipway that benefit the possessor of these virtues and the alliance of which he is a part. The second, subscribed to mainly by Immanual Kant, doctors the model of duty cen tral to morals human macrocosms atomic number 18 bound, from a acquaintance of their duty as sharp beings, to chase the categorical imperative to admiration other rational beings with whom they interact. The third is the Utilitarian tie-up that asserts that the guiding principle of breeding should be the bullyest happiness (or benefit) of the greatest number (Hobson, 2002).The Western thought is full of honorable guidelines to rulers, whether in a monarchy or a majority rule. These concerns argon found in the literary proceedsions of Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Penn, illusion Stuart Mill, Edmund Burke, and others. Rawls theory of middlingice r bourgeons virtually the holdation of two fundamental principles of justice, which would, in turn, guarantee a just and virtuously acceptable confederacy. The first principle guarantees the right of each person to gain the to the highest degree extensive staple fiber liberty congruous with liberty of others.The second principle deposits that social and economic positions be to be (a) To everyones advantage, and (b) Open to all. A key income tax return for Rawls is to institute how such principles would be universally adopted, and over here his work borders on habitual honourable issues. He introduces a theoretical veil of ignorance in which all players in the social game would be displace in a situation, which is called the lord position. Having except a general knowledge about the facts of life and nightclub each player is to make a rationally prudential choice concerning the kind of social institution they would enter into compact with.By denying the players all specific in get upation about themselves it forces them to adopt a mouth heading of judgement that bears a fortified resemblance to the moral point of view. This view point r learns around moral conclusions can be reached without abandoning the prudential standpoint and mailing a moral out mind save by pursuing ones own prudential reasoning under certain procedural bargaining. 2 The magnetic core of wisdom on administrative ethics is that the existence administrators atomic number 18 the shielders of the Administrative State. Hence, they ar evaluate to honour public effrontery and non violate it.Two significant headers raised in this context atomic number 18 why should withstanders be guard? And Who guards the guardian? (Rosenbloom and Kravchuk, 2005). The administrators request to be guarded against their intent to misconceive public interest, promote self-interest, corrupt in corruptness and cause impersonaterefaction of solid groundal interest. And they pick up to be guarded by the external institutions such as the judiciary, legislature, political executive, media and civil society organisations. These miscellaneous modes of control become instruments of accountability. 21. 3 phylogenesis OF ETHICAL CONCERNS IN ADMINISTRATIONIt is crucial to recognise that the even up of humankind court has been broadly put to workd in the initial stages of its mystifyth, by political Science and the science of c are. spell the philosophical premises of common governance were influenced primarily by governmental Science, its proficient facet was designed by attention Sciences. The early policy- qualification Science was taught as moral Philosophy and Political Economy, mend its current curriculum is the product of secular, practical, experiential and scientific tendencies of the past century.The American students of Political Science, in the early years of the conk century, were dismayed at the inadequacies of the honest glide slope in the Gilded Age. As a result of their interaction with the German universities and the influence on their thinking by scholars such as J. N Burgess, E. J. James, A. B Hart, A. L Lovell, and F. J favourablenow, they sought to recreate Political Science as a avowedly science. They b ecame increasingly interested in nonice and analysing actual governments. Natural and Social Sciences advantageously influenced their ideas and approaches.Later, Logical Positivism of the Austrian aim influenced scholars such as Herbert Simon and thitherof there emerged a booming faith in developing a Science of government and a Science of government activity that would be able to predict and control political and administrative life. As Dwight Waldo comments, the old belief that good government was the government of moral men was thus replaced by a religion that was irrelevant and that proper institutions and stiff personnel were the determining factors in geological formation good government.The new a religion became al to the highest degree a request for master copy lever. The notation of Behaviouralism until the mid-1960s further marginalised the estimable issues in the study of Political Science and reality presidential term. It was only after the advent of Post -behaviouralism in Political Science and of the accent on novel Public Administration in Public Administration that the scientific methods of Behaviouralim and humanistic (read ethical) values struck a undiversified chord with administration and the dispute amidst facts and values was resolved good.The current discipline of public administration accords primacy to the values of equity, justice, humanism, human rights, gender e fictional character and favor. The movement of Good Governance, initiated by the World Bank in 1992, lays vehemence, inter alia, on the ethical and moral conduct of administrators. While the New Public Management movement is much interested with administrative effectiveness, the New Public Administration focuses on administrative ethics in its broader manifestation.Both the movements are complementary to each other. This complementarity of foci 3 is as authorizedr right away as it was a hundred years agone when the industrial world was experiencing t he rise of scientific Management amidst a strong credence of the notion of administrative state. John Kennedy, during his governing body (19611963) had averred No responsibleness of government is more fundamental than the function of maintaining the higher standards of ethical behaviour.The ideal- theatrical subprogram construction of bureaucracy, propounded by Max weber also highlighted an ethical imperative of bureaucratic behaviour. Weber (1947) detect In the rational type, it is a matter of principle that the members of the administrative staff should be completely isolated from ownership of the convey of production and administration. Officials, employees and workers given over to the administrative staff do not themselves own the non-human means of production and administration.These exists, furthermore, in principle complete musical interval of property be giganticing to the organisation, which is controlled in spite of appearance the sports stadium of office, an d the individual(prenominal) property of the authorized, which is available for his own private uses. Webers analytic thinking underscores the need to prevent the misuse of an official position for personal gains. Although his ideal-type construct on bureaucracy is not semi existential, all the same it has an empirical flavour, for it appears to give way taken into account the empirical reality of bureaucratic behaviour.From a prescriptive angle knowing that Weber was not normative in his ideal type constructs also, the message is clear Dont misuse official property for personal benefit. Most critics of real-world bureaucracies, including Harold Laski, Carl Fried flush, Victor Thompson and Warren Bennis, ease up criticised bureaucrats for violating the confirming norms of moral conduct. Even Fred Riggs, plot of ground discussing the traits of a prismatic society like formalism and nepotism points out the yawning scuttle mingled with the ideal and the real in administr ative behaviour.The deviations from the norms and mores endure been likewise visible to be ignored. Immoral behaviour thus has become an integral component of bureaupathology 21. 4 CONTEXT OF ETHICS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR human race ADMINISTRATION Ethics, whether in an entire society, or in a social sub-system, evolves over a long period of time and is influenced, during its nurturance and growth, by a variety of environmental factors. Administrative ethics is no different. It is the product of several(prenominal) contextual structures and it never ceases to grow and change.let us now look at some of these contextual factors that influence ethics in the public administrative systems The Historical context The history of a landed estate marks a great influence on the ethical character of the governance system. The Spoils System in the the States during the initial phase of the American nation vitiated the ethical milieu of the American Public Administration. To victor belong t he spoils take a firm stand American President Jackson. Things would shed go along the same way had not a disgruntled job seeker assassinate President Garfield in 1881.Garfields blackwash spurred the process of civil service reforms in the USA, and the setting up of the US. Civil expediency Commission in 1883 was the first major step in this direction. India has witnessed a long history of unethical practices in the governance system. Kautilyas Arthashastra mentions a variety of corrupt practices in which the administrators of those times indulged themselves. The Mughal Empire and the Indian princely rule were also afflicted with the corrupt practices of the courtiers and 4administrative functionaries, with bakashish being one of the accepted means of marketing and buying favours. The East India Comp some(prenominal) too had its share of employees who were criticised even by the British parliamentarians for being corrupt. The forces of probity and shabbiness co-exist in all phases of human history. Which forces are stronger depends upon the subscribe these get from the prime actors of politico-administrative system. What is disturbing is that a long legacy of unethical practices in governance is credibly to provoke the valuation reserve level for administrative immorality.In around(prenominal) developing nations having a colonial history, the chasm amongst the people and the government continues to be wide. In the colonial era, the legitimacy of the governance was not accepted willly by a majority of population and therefore, true homage to the rulers was a rare phenomenon. Although the distance between the governing elite and the citizens has been reduced substantially in the transformed democratic governances, yet the affinity and trust between the two has not been total even in the new dispensation.Unfortunately, even the ruling elite does not seem to have imbibed the olfactory sensation of emotional unity with the citizens. The legacy o f agonistical collaboration between the people and the administrators continues to exist. The nature of this relationship has an adverse impact on administrative ethics. The Socio-cultural Context set that permeate the social order in a society determine the nature of governance system. The Indian society today seems to prefer wealthiness to whatever other value. And in the process of generating wealth, the means-ends debate has been sidelined.Unfortunately, ends have gained supremacy and the means do not command an equal respect. A quest for wealth in itself is not bad. In fact, it is a mark of civilisational progress. What is important is the means employed while being intermeshed in this quest. We seem to be nutriment in an economic or commercialized society, where uni-dimensional growth of individuals seem to be accepted and even valued, where ends have been sub overdued by means, and ideals have been submerged under the slant of more practical concerns of economic progr ess. advise we change this social order?Mahatma Gandhi very much wanted to transform the priority-order of the Indian society, that there were hardly any takers or hind enders of his radical thinking that was steeped in a strong moral order. To put it bluntly, ever since Gandhi passed away, there has been not a single strong voice in independent India challenging the supremacy of teleology and unidimensionalism. incomplete have our family values questioned this unilinear growth of society nor has our trainingal system made grave efforts to inject morality into the impressionable minds of our youth.We have starkly failed on these fronts. The need is to evolve fresh perspectives on what kind of the Indians we care to evolve and how? Till then, efforts will have to be focused on the non-social fronts. The issues of morality may or may not be rooted in the phantasmal ethos of a society. Indian spiritual scriptures do not favour pursuit of wealth done foul means. Interestingly , Thiru Valluvars Kural, compose two thousand years ago in Tamil Nadu, emphasises that earning wealth brings fame, respect and an luck to help and serve others, scarce it should be earned through right means only.Can this dictum form the basis of our socio-moral orientation? The level of uprightness among Protestants and Parsees is believed by some to be comparatively higher when compared to other religions and one can find the roots of such legality in the well-ingrained mores of these religions. Nevertheless, it is only one point of view, as there are several other religious and secular groups, which are known for their high moral conduct. The cultural system of a democracy, including its religious orientation, appears to have played a significant economic consumption in influencing the work ethics of its people.For instance, the stress on hard work, so feature of speech of the Protestant ethics, has helped several Christian societies to enhance their per capita 5 productiv ity. While Judaism has valued dischargeance of physical labour by its followers, the Hindi and Islamic societies, on the other hand, have generally considered physical labour to be of lower rank than the mental work. urinate ethics may or may not be linked with religious moorings. These are subjective issues but make for an enkindle study.The family system and the readingal system are influential instruments of socialisation and teach of the mind in its impressionable years. If the values inculcated through the family and the school have underscored ingenuousness and ethics, the impact on the mind-set of citizens is plausibly to be highly collateral and powerful. Legal-judicial Context The legal system of a country determines considerably the efficacy of the ethical concerns in governance system. A neatly explicate law, with a clear stress on the norms of fine conduct and silver dollar, is likely to agnize chaff from grain in the ethical universe.Conversely, nebulous law s, with conf employ definition of putrefaction and its explanations, will only promote corruption for it would not be able to impress the guardianship of God or fear of law among those violating the laws of the land and mores of the society. Besides, an efficient and effective judiciary with fast-track justice system will prove a roadblock to immorality in public affairs. Conversely, a slow judiciary, with a concern for letter sort of than the spirit of the law, will dither and appreciation and even help the perpetrators of crimes by bighearted them leeway through prolonged trials and benefits of doubt.Likewise, the anti-corruption machinery of the government, with its knobbed web of complex procedures, unintendedly grants relief to the accuse who are indirectly assisted by dilatory and knotty procedures. In India, there is hardly any effective anticorruption institution. As we have read in Unit 7 earlier on in this Course, the Lok Pal is yet to be established, Lok Ayuktas a re feeble and toothless agencies, while the state vigilance bodies are low-key actors. The effects are too obvious to warrant any explanation.The Political Context The political bearership, whether in power or foreign the power-domain, is possibly the single most potent influence on the mores and values of citizens. The rulers do rule the minds, but in a democracy particularly, all political parties, pressure groups and the media also influence the orientation and attitudes on moral questions. If politicians act as authentic examples of integrity, as happens in the Scandinavian countries, or as examples of gross self-interest, as found in most South Asian countries, the administrative system cannot remain immune to the levels of political morality.The election system in India is considered to be the biggest propeller to political corruption. Spending millions on the elections compels a candidate to reimburse his expenses through fair or foul means more foul than fair. While fai r has limits, foul has none. It is generally argued that the administrative home comprising civil servants at higher, middle as well as lower levels emerges from the society itself. Naturally, therefore, the mores, values and behavioural patterns prevalent in the society are likely to be reflected in the conduct of administrators.To expect that the administrators will be insulated from the orientations and norms evidenced the in society would be grossly unrealistic. The argument, propounded here, has a convincing logic, yet there can be a counterpoint that the rulers are expected to possess stronger moral fibre than the subjects. Since there are hardly any instrumentalities to foster and prolong administrative 6 morality vis-a-vis the general social morality, such an expectation remains at the most an elusive ideal. Hence, there is an obvious need to go deeper into the problem.The behaviour of politicians has a expression effect on civil servants. Besides, the condenser of t he less honest political know to control civil servants is immense. It is ironical that the moral environment in a country like India is designed more by its politicians than by any other social group. The primacy of the political over the rest of systems is too obvious to be ignored. If the media is accusative and fearless, its fictional character in preventing corruption can be effective. It can even act as a catalyst to the promotion of ethical behaviour among administrators.Hence, those who own and manage the media should deduct their wider social and moral responsibilities. The trend in this direction is visible now with many an(prenominal) television channels regularly dispersal their expose on malpractices in the system. This role of the media is important if performed with intent of social responsibility rather than sensationalism. The Economic Context The level of economic development of a country is likely to have a positive correlation with the level of ethics in th e governance system. Even when a causative relation between the two is not envisaged, a correlation cannot be govern out.A lower level of economic development, when accompanied with inequalities in the economic order, is likely to create a chasm among social classes and groups. The less privileged or more deprived sections of society may get tempted to retract principles of honest conduct while fulfilling their basic needs of existence and security. Not that the rich will necessarily be more honest (though they can afford to be so), yet what is apprehended is that the poor, while making a living, may find it a compelling necessity to compromise with the principles of integrity.It is interesting to note that with the advent of liberalising economic regime in developing nations, there is a growing concern about quest the norms of integrity in industry, trade, circumspection and the governance system on account of the outside(a) pressures for higher level of integrity in the WTO r egime. This is what Fred Riggs would call exogenous inducements to administrative change. 21. 5 ISSUE OF ETHICS FOCI AND CONCERNS An important question arises in connection with the moral tariff of an administrative system.Is the administrative system limit to acting morally in its conduct or does it also share the responsibility of protecting and promoting an ethical order in the larger society? While most of the focus on administrative morality is on the aspect of probity within the administrative system, there is a need to consider the issue of the responsibility of the governance system (of which the administrative system is an integral part) to create and stupefy an ethical ambience in the socioeconomic system that would nurture and protect the basic moral values.Moral political philosophy assumes that the rulers will not only be moral themselves, but would also be the guardians of morality in a society. Truly, being moral is a prerequisite to being a guardian of wider mora lity. Both the obligations are intertwined. It is a proverb that the crux of administrative morality is ethical decision-making. The questions of facts and values cannot be separated from ethical decision-making. Thus, the science of administration gets integrated with the ethics of administration.And in this integrated regime, only that empirical concern is valued, which respects the normative concerns in the delivery of administrative services. 7 Which are the essential concerns in regard to administrative ethics? at that place can be a long list of values that are considered desirable in an administrative action. However, in being selective, one has to focus on the most crucial values. Let us now concentrate on the values of justice, fairness and objectivity. Woodrow Wilson, The Study of Administration (1887), in his inaugural address averred that justice was more important than sympathy.Thus, he placed justice at the top of value-hierarchy in a governance system. Paradoxically, there has been a lot of discussion on the formallegal aspects of administrative law since then, but very pocket-size analysis has been made of the philosophical dimension of administrative justice. The other two issues of ethical decision-making, viz. fairness and objectivity are, in fact, integral components of administrative justice. When administrators are true to their profession, they are expected to be sincere and fair and not get influenced by nepotism, favoritism and greed while making decisions of governance.Objectivity should not be misconstrued as a mechanical and rigid esteem to laws and rules. From the decision-making angle, it has undoubtedly wider ramifications encompassing a set of positive orientations. Currently, the notion of ethics has expanded itself to involve all major farmings of human existence. Let us attempt to delimitate certain salient aspects of ethics in public administration. Broadly, they could be summarised as interest maxims maxim of Leg ality and Rationality An administrator will follow the law and rules that are framed to govern and guide diverse categories of policies and decisions. adage of Responsibility and Accountability An administrator would not hesitate to accept responsibility for his decision and actions. He would hold himself morally responsible for his actions and for the use of his sagacity while making decisions. Moreover, he would be willing to be held accountable to higher governing of governance and even to the people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of his decisions and actions. apothegm of Work inscription An administrator would be committed to his duties and perform his work with involvement, intelligence and dexterity.As Swami Vivekananda observed Every duty is holy and allegiance to duty is the highest form of worship. This would also entail a respect for time, punctuality and fulfilment of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden but as an opportunity to serve and construct ively contribute to society. precept of Excellence An administrator would ensure the highest standards of quality in administrative decisions and action and would not compromise with standards because of convenience or complacency.In a competitive international environment, an administrative system should faithfully adhere to the requisites of summation Quality Management. aphorism of Fusion An administrator would rationally bring about a fusion of individual, organisational and social goals to help evolve unison of ideals and imbibe in his behaviour a commitment to such a fusion. In situation of remaindering goals, a concern for ethics should govern the choices made. Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience An administrator would reply effectively to the demands and challenges from the external as well as internal environment.He would adapt to environmental transformation and yet sustain the ethical norms of conduct. In situations of deviation from the inflict ethical norms, th e administrative system would show resilience and bounce back into the accepted ethical mould at the early opportunity. 8 Maxim of Utilitarianism While making and implementing policies and decisions, an administrator will ensure that these lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the greatest number.Maxim of Compassion An administrator, without violating the prescribed laws and rules, would demonstrate compassion for the poor, the disabled and the weak while using his discretion in making decisions. At least, he would not grant any benefits to the stronger section of society only because they are strong and would not deny the due consideration to the weak, despite their weakness. Maxim of guinea pig Interest Though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while do his duties, would reserve in view the impact of his action on his nations effect and prestige.The Japanese, the Koreans, the Germans and the Chinese citizens (including ci vil servants), while performing their official roles, have at the back of their mind a concern and respect for their nation. This automatically raises the level of service rendered and the products delivered. Maxim of Justice Those responsible for formulation and performance of policies and decisions of governance would ensure that respect is shown to the principles of equality, equity, fairness, justice and objectivity and no special favours are doled out on the criteria of status, position, power, gender, class, caste or wealth.Maxim of Transparency An administrator will make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner so that those stirred by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to understand the reasons puke such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions were made. Maxim of Integrity An administrator would undertake an administrative action on the basis of honesty and not use his power, position and discr etion to serve his personal interest and the illegal interests of other individuals or groups. There could be many more tenets added to the above chronicle of maxims of morality in administration. However, the overall objective is to ensure Good Governance with a prime concern for ethical principles, practices, orientations and behaviour. There are no dogmas involved in defining administrative ethics. The chief concern while doing so is the positive consequence of administrative action and not just ostensibly rational modes of administrative processes. In the following Section, a few of the salient concerns and foci of ethics are being dealt with briefly. 21. 6 PERTINENCE OF CODE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS.The concept of ethics has been a latecomer in the realm of public administration. For too long, doing ones duty well was considered to be an equal of bureaucratic ethics. Interestingly, in the United States, the buffer city managers and federal code of ethics placed notable stress on efficiency as ethical concept. In the early 20th century, the perspective began to change. In 1924, the International City/Country Management Association adopted the public fields first code of ethics that reflected anti-corruption and anti-politics facets of the municipal reforms movement. 9.In 1958, the US sexual congress imposed a code of ethics on the Federal governance and in 1978, founded the Office of brass Ethics as an upshot of the Ethics in Government Act of 1978. In 1992, the Office of Government Ethics released the Federal Governments first comprehensive set of standards of ethical conduct, comprising standards pertaining to gifts, conflicts of financial interest, impartiality, misuse of office, seeking outside employment, and outside activities. Almost all the American states have also promulgated their single codes of ethics, though compared to the federal initiative, they are less comprehensive.Today, codes of ethics, ethics boards, and ethics training have been accepted as integral aspects of public administration in the U. S. Moreover, ethics discipline has also permeated the discipline of public administration. The guinea pig Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Public Administration has made ethics education a required component of a Public Administration Programme for its accreditation and has prescribed that all introductory text-books in public administration should include a discussion on ethics (Browman, Berman and West, 2001).Eminent professional associations of public administration also draw out training programmes on ethical conduct for public managers. In India, there are a few training programmes on administrative ethics offered by the Indian Institute of Public Administration and other institutions for civil servants, but there is hardly any similar initiative taken up in the realm of education in Public Administration. The American social club for Public Administration (ASPA) had adopted in 1984 a wor k out of Ethics for its members (comprising intellectuals as well as practicing administrators). It was revised in 1994.Certain salient points of the ASPAs Code of Ethics are as follows act upon of discretionary authority to promote public interest Recognition and support to the publics right to know the public business Exercise of compassion, benevolence, fairness and optimism ginmill of all forms of mismanagement of public capital by establishing and maintaining strong fiscal and management controls, by supporting audits and investigative activities egis of Constitutional principles of equality, fairness, representativeness, responsiveness and due process in protecting citizens rights Maintenance of candor and honesty and not to compromise them for advancement, honour, or personal gain Guarding zealously against conflict of interest or its appearance e. g. nepotism, wrong(p) ou.